Due to Faraday's law of induction, the motion of the wire within the magnetic field creates an electromotive force, which pushes on the electrons in the metal, creating an electric current in the wire. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. Génératrice à excitation shunt Fonctionnement à vide Tout d’abord on précise que E0 = f(j) ne dépend ni du mode d’excitation, ni du mode de fonctionnement, car elle représente la courbe d’aimantation du circuit magnétique. or. Les résistances sont: à l’induit R = 0,24 0hm, à l’inducteur r= 184 Ohm. Dynamo Speed Control and Tectonics —Modeling Earth as a Shunt Wound DC Machine Greg Poole Industrial Tests, Inc., Pilot Hill, CA , USA Abstract The Sun’s slow periodic flux transfer to the Earth, the low frequency of Schu-mann Resonance, and the fixed DC voltage of the capacitor direct us toward direct current (DC) machines for electrical modeling purposes. A certain 110-volt shunt generator has an armature and brush resistance of 0.06 ohm at full load of 85 amp. This paper. Madras Univ. 10 b) Draw heating curve and cooling curve and explain the following terms : a) Heating time constant b) Cooling time constant 8 OR 2. Shunt bornes 17 - 19. After dynamos and motors were found to allow easy conversion back and forth between mechanical or electrical power, they were combined in devices called rotary converters, rotating machines whose purpose was not to provide mechanical power to loads but to convert one type of electric current into another, for example DC into AC. Devant c'est une vis moletée fendue de 14 au pas de 100 il me semble. Download PDF Info Publication number US264672A. The battery energizes the windings just enough to imprint the residual field, to enable building up the current. In the case of shunt generators, it is practically constant… The critical field resistance is the maximum field circuit resistance for a given speed with which the shunt generator would excite. Download full-text PDF. Allow 1.0 V per brush for contact drop. Solution. This loss is about 30 to 40% of full-load losses. shunt bal. : 220 V; • Tension d'excitation 90÷210 V; • Vitesse nom. a shunt generator produces 450A at 230v the resistance of shunt field and armature are 50 and 0 025 ohms respectively the armature voltage drop will be? This loss is about 30 to 40% of full-load losses. GM64-1500 Moteur continu 1500W page 54 Géné. shunt bal. 1,034 talking about this. Il est toujours recommandé de la … : tés Voltampèremètro Un éclateur air 1 i bro, réglable, 3 pointes Une prise de courant s bipolaire, pour raccoxtler -le cordon de shunt 500 amp. [4] (Elect. Self-excited direct current dynamos commonly have a combination of series and parallel (shunt) field windings, which are directly supplied power by the rotor through the commutator in a regenerative manner. Remplacer la dynamo de l’estaf par un alternateur hey ! A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct current using a commutator.Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices were based, including the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the rotary converter. "Experimental Researches in Electricity," Vol. Lap-wound machine has lower voltage and higher current while the wave-wound machine has higher voltage and lower current. On larger machines the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in the wire each time a pole passed the coil. Current regulation is impacted through T4. Very large direct current machines, say, with megawatt power ratings, cannot be built with commutators. a 200v dc shunt motor delivers an output of 17kw with an input of 20 kw the field winding resistance is 50ohms and armature resistance is 0 04ohm maximum efficiency will be obtained when the total armature copper losses are equal to, A 20KW 200V shunt generator is operated at rated load if thr drinving engine is developing, a 20kw compound generator work on full load maths, a 20kw compound generator works on full-load with a terminal voltage, a 220V d c motor has armature and field resistances of 0 15 and 0 10, A 220V DC machine has an armature resistance of 0 5 ohm if the armature current is 20 amps the induced emf when the machine work as, a 220v dc shunt motor takes a total current of 80A and runs at 800 rpm resistance of shunt field is 50ohm and that of armature 0 1ohm the iron losses amount to 1600w what is the driving power of the motor, a 220v series motor take 50A armature and series field resistance of 0 1 & 0 08 respectively find break horse power and efficiency, A 230v dc motor has na armature resistance of 0 6ohm if the full load armature current is 30ohm and thr no load current is 4 find thr change in back emf from no load to full load. Find the number of poles. — — Témoin de charge. Déterminer la résistance de chacune de de p ces bobines. Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. LES REGULATEURS DE TENSION . Calculate the full load efficiency. (b) Magnetic Losses (also known as iron or core losses). Calculate the induced emf of 4 pole dynamo having 1000 rpm lap wound and total number of conductors is 600 the flux / pole is 0 064 wb? Volker Leiste: 1867 – Fundamental report on dynamo-electric principle before the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Birmingham Museums trust catalogue, accession number: 1889S00044. In the case of shunt generators, it is practically constant and I 2 R (or VIsh). Vous rebranchez votre dynamo sur le véhicule, vous mettez votre voiture en route moteur ralenti accéléré puis vous court-circuitez votre conjoncteur un moment "30 secondes, fi entre le +D et +B du conjoncteur". The original "dynamo principle" of Werner von Siemens referred only to the direct current generators which use exclusively the self-excitation (self-induction) principle to generate DC power. A 4-pole lap-winding has 4 parallel paths in armature. Observation. Create a free account to download . The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. Télécharger . While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field. c. Compound Generator . April, 1978), 3. The word dynamo (from the Greek word dynamis (δύναμις), meaning force or power) was originally another name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional usage as a replacement for the word generator. The armature resistance of a 6 pole lap wound dc machine is 0 05 ohm If the armature is rewound as a wave winding what is the armature resistance ??? READ PAPER. The earliest dynamos used permanent magnets to create the magnetic field. Excitation en dérivation / 4. Wire windings can conveniently produce any voltage desired by changing the number of turns, so they have been a feature of all subsequent generator designs, requiring the invention of the commutator to produce direct current. PDF. In a shunt-wound dynamo only a small proportion, usually from two to three per cent, of the total current, passes round the field magnets, and therefore the windings must be composed of much smaller wire of a high resistance compared with the external circuit and winding of the armature than is necessary in a series-wound dynamo. 25. Dynamo cuirassée / 9. ١ ٢٠١٠-٢٠١١ Mr. Saad M. Alwash Lecture Notes University of Babylon Electrical machines mechanical department D.C GENERATORS [243.25 V] (Elect. MediaWiki vous aide à recueillir et organiser les connaissances et à les rendre accessibles aux autres. Fink, Donald G. and H. Wayne Beaty (2007), The electrification of the world – Werner von Siemens and the dynamoelectric principle, Anthology of Italian Physics, entry for Antonio Pacinotti, from the website of the University of Pavia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynamo&oldid=1009336111, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Cours Electrotechnique GE 2 AMARI.Mansour TD N°3 : Génératrices … Also for: 3tnm72. A 110-V shunt generator has a full-load current of 100 A, shunt field resistance of 55 W and constant losses of 500 W. If F.L. These disadvantages are: Although direct current dynamos were the first source of electric power for industry, they had to be located close to the factories that used their power. Also, converting alternating to direct current using rectifiers (such as vacuum tubes or more recently via solid state technology) is effective and usually economical. The total losses in a d.c. generator are summarized below : Usually, magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as Stray Losses. The commutator is needed to produce direct current. An advantage of Gramme's design was a better path for the magnetic flux, by filling the space occupied by the magnetic field with heavy iron cores and minimizing the air gaps between the stationary and rotating parts. — Récepteur de jauge, — Éclairage combiné. [(a) 229.7 V (b) 1.995 kW (c) 24.99 kW (d) 88%]. 85.2% C. 86.5% B. Réparation dynamo et régulateur ALDYNO OC Circuit de charge Terrot 500 I.G. Download Free PDF. tutorials on how to rewind a 950 generator coil, two dc shunt generator each armature resistance of 0 02 and field resistance 50, value of armature winding resistance in dc shunt generator, what does no-load losses mean in a short shunt, what happens to terminal voltage when series field is shorted, what is the efficiency of dc generator at no load, what is the equation for induced voltage at half full load, what is the meaning of induced voltage at half load, what means full load effiency in dc generator, which case shunt cpper loss is practically cnstant, why we divided by pole when finding armature resistance in generator, A short shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 30A at 220V and has armature series and shunt field resistances of 0 05 0 30 and 200 ohm respectively Calculate the induced emfand the armature current Allow 1 0 V per brush for contact drop, Dynamic Equations and System-model of a Simple System, Hardware Bible – Functions and Components. Dynamo Speed Control and Tectonics—Modeling Earth as a Shunt Wound DC Machine January 2018 Journal of High Energy Physics Gravitation and Cosmology 04(01):152-165 [14] Wheatstone's design was similar to Siemens', with the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were in series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel. The dynamo pictured here had been run in this configuration for a couple of years without apparent problems until it was examined internally. Faraday and others found that higher, more useful voltages could be produced by winding multiple turns of wire into a coil. There is a weak residual magnetic field that persists in the metal frame of the device when it is not operating, which has been imprinted onto the metal by the field windings. and at the same time the flux per pole is reduced to 0.019 Wb per pole, what is then the induced e.m.f. [6], The Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, is the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process. [4] However, researchers found that stronger magnetic fields — and thus more power — could be produced by using electromagnets (field coils) on the stator. They were powered by 25 Hz AC, and provided DC at 600 volts for the trains. has an armature with 90 slots and 6 conductors per slot. = 360 V, Due to wave-winding, number of parallel paths in armature = 2, Hence, the total armature output current = 20 amp, Thus, Armature Electrical output-power = 360 ´ 20 ´ 10-3 = 7.2 kW. Introduction:3. [(a) 1200.4, 104.4 A (b) 120.3 V, 104.6 A] (Electrical Machines-I, Bombay Univ. Hence, for shunt and compound generators. Calculate the flux in a 4-pole dynamo with 722 armature conductors generating 500 V when running at 1000 r.p.m. 9-mcc.odt 1. The earlier DC generators which used permanent magnets were not considered "dynamo electric machines". Calculate the area of the pole shoe if the gap density has a uniform value of 0 9. Generator The various losses occurring in a generator can be sub-divided as follows : where Ra = resistance of armature and interpoles and series field winding etc. — Témoin d'huile rouge. losses. The switching action of the commutator causes, This page was last edited on 28 February 2021, at 01:35. Calculate the flux per pole required on full-load for a 50 kW, 400 V, 8-pole, 600 r.p.m. In simple lap-wound machines, since a four-pole machine has four parallel paths in armature, the total armature output-current is 40 amp. A l'arrière sur le coté c'est le porte fusible qu'il te manque. CB40 page 54 2 1 DYTA1 page 58 Statique JA1 Page 57 GM65-1500 Moteur continu 1500W page 54 Géné. Without an external load attached, this small current is then fully supplied to the field windings, which in combination with the residual field, cause the rotor to produce more current. A 4-pole machine running at 1500 r.p.m. Discuss in detail properties of electrical sheet steels used in electrical machines. This situation can also occur in modern self-excited portable generators, and is resolved for both types of generators in a similar manner, by applying a brief direct current battery charge to the output terminals of the stopped generator. Brush's design modified the Gramme dynamo by shaping the ring armature like a disc rather than a cylinder shape. Calculate the generated e.m.f. Commutated machines cannot be used in low particulate or sealed applications or in equipment that must operate for long periods without maintenance. A dynamo-electric machine includes a rotor 1 having a plurality of permanent magnets 3, a stator 5 having a plurality of stator coils 9, and an adjustable magnetic shunt 4, for shunting the magnetic flux of at least one of the permanent magnets 3, the shunt 4 being displaceable axially between a shunting position and a non-shunting position. Free PDF. (iii) The loss due to brush contact resistance. Case (i) : Lap-wound Machine at 600 r.p.m. However, in the early days of electric experimentation, alternating current generally had no known use. 13. — — Éclairage compte-tours. Rotary converters remained in use in the West Side IRT subway in Manhattan into the late 1960s, and possibly some years later. This was not a dynamo in the current sense, because it did not use a commutator. fabien03 a écrit : ↑ 09 avr. 2020, 13:22 Tu devrais faire refaire les pièces manquantes car les trouver relève du miracle à moins de trouver une dynamo HS mais complète. A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct current using a commutator. On small machines, the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. Required fields are marked *, Powered by WordPress and HeatMap AdAptive Theme, Ahmed Farahat is EECS engineer With 18 years of experience in the field he worked on different technological discipline and and had Choosing the best seminar topic is essential not only from an academic point of view but also from the knowledge point of view. 7- Génératrice à courant continu (dynamo) 4 Chapitre 1 Machine à courant continu 1- Constitution La machine à courant continu est constituée de trois parties principales : ... - Machine shunt (excitation en dérivation) 17 - Machine à excitation en série - … Dynamos were invented as a replacement for batteries. The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law of induction. ? — Un l)outon (L volt) qui sert uniquernent pour la me. A shunt DC generator is shown in figure (b), in which the field winding is wired parallel to armature winding so that the voltage across both are same. 1977). The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating, used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries. Find the armature resistance of the machine is rewound for wave-connection. Due to friction, the brushes and copper commutator segments wear down, creating dust. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. However, the north and south poles of the magnet induced currents in opposite directions. [0.162 Wb]. per min. Dynamos still have some uses in low power applications, particularly where low voltage DC is required, since an alternator with a semiconductor rectifier can be inefficient in these applications. d.c. shunt generator with 256 conductors arranged in a lap-connected winding. A short shunt compound generator supplies 100A at 110V armature resistance 0 05 shunt field resistance is 57 series field resistance is 0 04 iron and frictional losses amount to 852W, a short shunt compound generator supplies load of 10kw at 200v through a pair of feeder and series field resistance of 1ohm armature resistance and series field resistance are 1 ohm 52 5 ohms and 1ohm respectively if core friction and windage losses amoun, A shunt deliver 450 amp at 230v and the resistance of the shunt field aremeture are 50ohom and 0 03 ohom respectively Calculate generator emf, a shunt generator deliver 195 A at terminal voltage of 250V the armature and shunt resistance fields, A shunt generator deliver 195 ampere at 230volt resistance of shunt feild and armature is 50 ohmand 0 02 ohm iron and fricton loss is 950 watt calculate cu loss emf of generator and efficiency, a shunt generator deliver 405A at 240V the resistance of shunt field and armature are 50ohms and 0 03ohms respectively calculate the generated emf, a shunt generator deliver 450 amp at 230 volt and the resistance of the shunt field and armature are 50 and 0 03 ohm respectively calculate the generator e m f, A shunt generator delivers 195 A at a terminal voltage, A shunt generator delivers 195 A at the terminal. a shunt generator delivers 195 ampere at a terminal voltage of 250V the armature resistance and shunt field resiatance are 0 02 and 50 ohm respectively the iron losses and friction losses equal 950 watt what is the output of prime mover ? Below, video of a small simple dynamo similar to the diagrams above (built in the 1890s): The Generator. A 4-pole, d.c. generator has a wave-wound armature with 792 conductors. Les bobines des électro-aimants d'une dynamo-shunt sont constituées de 600 m de fil de Cu = 0,018 mm2/m d'un diamètre de 20/10 mm. A 15 hp 220 V shunt motor with an efficiency of 87% at full load The resistance of the field is 440 ohms What is the full load armature current? A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct current using a commutator. Ligne - Excitation compound /5. The shunt generator delivers full load current of 200A at 240 The shunt field resistance is 602 and full load efficiency is 90% The rotational losses are 800w Find (i) Armature resistance (ii) Current at which maximum efficiency occurs, the shunt generator supplies 100A at a terminal voltage of 200v the prime mover is developing 32 b h p shunt field resistance =50 ohms armature resistance = 0 1ohms find the iron and friction losses the Copper losses and commercial efficiency, ) A 4-pole 250 kW 750V dc generator has a lap winding on the armature Calculate, 1000w power is fed into the primary coil of a step up transformer at a p d of 50volts if output current in the secondary coil is 2 0 A find the emf output of secondary coil, 103 The total losses in a well designed D C generator of 10 kW will be, 1500kw 600v 16pole lap connected seperetly dc gen runs at 200rpm z is 2500 full load cu loss is 25kw determine useful flux solution, 2 dc shunt generators each with armature resistance 0 02 ohm and field resistance if 50 ohm run in parallel and supply a total current of 1000 ampr if their emfs are 265and270 volt thn their busbar voltage will be, 20-kW compound generator works on full-load with a terminal voltage of 230 V, 20kw 250V dc shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0 1 and 125 respectively calculate the total armature power developed when running as a generator delivering 20KW output, 4 pole dynamo flux pole is 15wmb and driven by 600rpm calculate the emf induced, 4 pole lap connected dc machine armature resistance 0 15, 4pole machine running at 1500rpm has an armature with 80 skits 6conductors perbpole Flux is 6*10determinev emf of dc generator, 5 A 250V(terminal voltage) lap connected dc shunt machine is running at a speed of 1200rpm its armature resistance is 0 6ohm when it worked as a generator calculate the speed of the machine when it worked as a motor for same supply voltage Take armature c, 500 V Shunt motor take 4 Amp on no load The armature resistance including that of brushes is 0 2  and the field current is 1 Amp Estimate the output and the efficiency when the input current is i) 20 Amp ii) 100 Amp, 6 pole lap wound has 360 conductor and emf per conductor being 5 v find the generator voltage, a 10 kw 250v 6 pole lap connected dc shunt generator runs at 1200 rpm armature has 500 conductors, A 10-kW 220-V compound generator (long-shunt connected) is operated at no load at the proper armature voltage and speed from which the stray-power loss is determined to be 705 The shunt-field resistance Rsh=110 the armature resistance Ra=0 265 and the, a 100 kw 6 pole dc shunt generator has armature, A 10kW shunt generator is having an armature resistance of 1ohms and a field resistantance of 50ohms which generates terminal voltage of 110v at full load calculate the efficiency of the generator at full load assuming losses to be 2kW, A 110 kw short shunt compound generator has a no load voltage, a 110 shunt generator has full load current, A 110 V generator has a full load current of 100A A shunt field resistance of 55 ohms and constant losses of 500 W If f l efficiency is 88% find the armature resistanceg, A 110-V shunt generator has a full-load current of 100 A shunt field resistance of 55 ohm and constant losses of 500 W If F L efficiency is 88% find the armature resistance Assuming voltage to be constant at 110 V calculate the efficiency at half F L and, A 110-V shunt generator has a full-load current of 100 A shunt field resistance of 55 W and constant losses of 500 W If F L efficiency is 88% find armature resistance Assuming voltage to be constant at 110 V calculate the efficiency at half F L And at 50%, A 110-v shunt generator has full-load current of 100A. a 200 V dc shunt motor delivers an output of 17 KW with an input of 20 KW the field winding resistance is 50 ohm and armature resistance is 0 04 ohm Maximum efficiency will be obtained when total armature copper losses are equal to?? A 20 kW compound generator works on full-load with a terminal voltage of 230 V. The armature, series and shunt field resistances are 0.1, 0.05 and 115 W respectively. dc generator sample problems with solutions. This article gives a list of the most popular and latest seminar topics for electrical engineering students. Moteur/dynamo shunt/série/compound. Dynamos were used in motor vehicles to generate electricity for battery charging. An early type was the third-brush dynamo. Remarque 1 : Il Va De Soit Qu'un Moteur A Excitation Shunt Ne Peut Pas Etre Utilise En Excitation .pdf. And at 50% overload. 0.013 Wb, speed of 1200 r.p.m. les dudes et les dudettes bien sur, suite au problème de JC pour remplacer sa dynamo par un alternateur, J’ai planché un peu sur le schéma de la dynamo de l’estafette ! Formes d'inducteurs (Manchester - Cuirassée) / 7. 11. Download Widerrufsformular als PDF Download. Power. 1. a) What is ‘transformer grade steel’ and ‘dynamo grade steel’ ? To convert the alternating current to DC, Pixii invented a commutator, a split metal cylinder on the shaft, with two springy metal contacts that pressed against it. A dc generated has no-load output voltage, A DC generator takes input 20KW from the Prime mover & the generator overall efficiency is 90% If the Copper losses is 250 Watt then find (i) Electrical Efficiency (ii) Iron & Friction loss (iii) Load current when the supplied load voltage is 250V, a dc machine the total iron loss is 8 kW at its rated speed and excitation If excitation remains the same but speed is reduced by 25 % the total iron loss is found to be 5 kW Calculate the hysteresis and eddy current losses at (i) full speed (ii) half the, a DC machine with 6poles has its armature wound with 564 conductor and its driven at 800rpm solution, a dc separetly excited generator is supplying 100 A of load current at terminal voltage of 200 V The armature and field winding resistances are 0 07 ohm and 50 ohm respectively if the prime mover speed and load current are kept constant and an additional, a dc shunt generater supplies 150 ampere and output voltage of 250 volt Armature resistance is 5 and field resistance is 05 find iron losses copper losses, a dc shunt generater supplies aload of 10 kw at 220 v through feeders of resistance 0 1ohm the resistance of armature and shunt field winding is0 05, a dc shunt generator deliver 450a at 230v and the resistance of the shunt field armature are 50 omh and 0 03 ohm respectively calculate generated emf. Trans. II.1. It is usually included in the armature copper loss. copper losses in short shunt compound dc generator, Formula for finding stray losses in lap wound DC motor, formulato find copperlosses in shortshunt and comlong shunt, how to calculate resistance and inductance of field winding and armature winding of dc generator using digital meter, if a 42kw generator has an operating efficiency of 91% the total loss is, in dc generator 6 poles 83 slots each having 8 conductors then how many total conductors, the armature of a 2 pole shunt generator has 400 conductors arranged in 2 parallel paths and cutting 6x10√^-3 Wb per pole at 1800 rpm Compute the average emf generated, the armature of a 6 pole 600 rpm generated 90 slots, the following data is given for 250 KW 500 volts long shunt compound generator. Abstract. indirect injenction engine. Hence, armature-output-power = 216 ´ 40 ´ 10-3 = 8.64 kW, Case (ii) : Wave-wound machine, at 500 r.p.m. Basic Electrical Engineering-V K Mehta. A 4-pole, Lap-connected d.c. machine has an armature resistance of 0.15 ohm. 9. 1- Qu'est-ce Que Le Shunt Et Pourquoi Donne-t-il De L'hypoxemie. Behalve de gebruikelijke motoren die een roterende beweging leveren, zijn er ook lineaire motoren. Varley took out a patent on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced their discoveries on 17 January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to the Royal Society. Calculate the area of the pole shoe if the gap density has a uniform value of 0.9 wb/m2 and find the no-load terminal voltage, neglecting armature reaction and change in speed. with a flux per pole of 0.02 Wb, a d.c. generator has an e.m.f. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. 15. Le logiciel MediaWiki est utilisé par des dizaines de milliers de sites web et des milliers de sociétés et d’organisations.C’est sur lui que reposent Wikipédia et ce site web. The generator differs from the dynamo in that it produces AC power. The flux per pole is 10 mWb. The Sun’s slow periodic flux transfer to the Earth, the low frequency of Schumann Resonance, and the fixed DC voltage of the capacitor direct us toward direct current (DC) machines for electrical modeling purposes. There are two ways of wiring a dynamo: series wound and shunt wound. This is referred to as flashing the field. See the diagrams to learn the difference. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc.
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